Equity and Access in Music Education: Culture, Barriers, and Supports for Learning

Equity and access in music education: how culture shapes barriers and supports for music learning

The context for this research is the dramatic shift in school demographics occurring across the United States. Few teachers, schools, or programs remain untouched by an increasingly interconnected and pluralistic world. Music carries socially constructed meanings and serves as one expressive medium through which different cultures can be understood. It is also a vital source of cultural identity for many racial and ethnic groups. Given these realities, expanding research in multicultural music education to mirror the same lines of inquiry found in general multicultural education seems both necessary and appropriate. General education has long treated culture as a primary lens for identifying, examining, and critically analyzing the theories and variables that affect the extent and kind of educational equity and access.

Multicultural education, as described by Banks and Banks (2004), is "a field of study designed to increase educational equity for all students that incorporates, for this purpose, content, concepts, principles, theories and paradigms …" (p. xii). The goal of this article is to explore educational equity specifically within music education. If culture truly matters, then educators must account for the multiple contexts their students bring when designing learning experiences and conducting research. A vast number of factors influence music learning. Identifying which variables are essential and framing their relationships through the lens of culture would greatly benefit the development of a research agenda grounded in social justice and equity.

The case for a conceptual model

What roles might a conceptual model play for the research agenda proposed here? First, models serve as organizing frameworks. They help categorize existing knowledge derived from prior studies. They also make it possible to integrate areas of knowledge that have previously been treated in isolation. A conceptual model that illustrates how culture influences music learning would provide a way to place existing research within an organized context.

Second, models offer a map of reality. They specify the components that make up a process or phenomenon and allow researchers to explore potential relationships among those components. When relationships are codified within a process, predictions about specific outcomes become possible. Tuckman (1999) described a conceptual model as "a complex proposal of all the variables and their interconnections that make a particular outcome, such as learning … happen" (p. 32). A model in this area would clarify the factors and constructs that constitute the music-learning process, suggest how those factors relate to one another, and permit predictions about learning outcomes as they are shaped by race, ethnicity, and culture.

Third—and importantly, because models depict actions and procedures rather than static objects—building a conceptual model can suggest new research problems and questions, helping to generate hypotheses and theories that guide inquiry. Edwards (1992) pointed out that while research aims to explain observed relationships, the choice of which variables to study is often driven by an implicit or explicit theory about those relationships. Models are therefore visual representations of the theory that underpins a specific research project.

Beyond communicating theory, models "tell us how to follow a procedural regimen or show us hypothesized relationships and causal patterns. They enhance our ability to speculate about processes, consider alternatives, and develop hypotheses" (Edwards, 1992, p. 39). This is perhaps the most compelling reason to develop a conceptual model: its dynamic, generative potential. A good model does not remain static; it evolves as new information comes to light, helping researchers rethink findings and reshape theory.

The model proposed here contains five broad categories: teacher, student, content, instruction, and context. Each category represents dimensions or constructs that, because they are affected by culture, may serve either as barriers to or supports for music learning among diverse populations. The following sections explain each category with references to current work. Although discussed separately here, the boundaries between categories are often blurred in practice, with factors from one area regularly influencing or interacting with those from others.

Teacher

Proponents of multicultural education argue that growing diversity in public schools calls for teachers who are sensitive to and knowledgeable about the ways culture affects learning (Banks, 1994; Gay, 1994, 2002; Noel, 2000; Nieto, 2004). Villegas and Lucas (2002) identified six characteristics of culturally responsive teachers. These educators (1) recognize that multiple ways of perceiving reality exist and that a person's position in the social order shapes those perceptions, (2) hold affirming views of students from diverse backgrounds rather than seeing differences as problems to be fixed, (3) view themselves as capable of and responsible for bringing about educational change, (4) understand that learners build knowledge through overlapping pathways, (5) know about their students' lives and backgrounds, and (6) use that knowledge to design instruction that builds on what students already know while stretching them beyond the familiar.

To understand how research can help teachers acquire these competencies, the field needs a more complete picture of the factors that affect their development. Recent teacher-education research shows that many pre-service and in-service teachers remain unaware of or unresponsive to how cultural differences affect student learning and achievement (Moore, 1993). Early studies in music education looking at both pre- and in-service teachers' attitudes toward multicultural music instruction found that, while music teachers believe in the value of including music from different cultures, they are often uncertain about how to teach it effectively (Norman, 1994; Young, 1996). This uncertainty persists even as the number of undergraduate courses in multicultural music has increased.

Research also suggests that many teacher-candidates lack a commitment to teaching in culturally diverse schools, preferring monocultural settings instead (Wiggins & Follo, 1999; Bradfield-Kreider, 2001; Dieker et al., 2002; Nierman et al., 2002). Kelly (2003) found that pre-service music teachers who grew up in suburban, middle-class schools preferred teaching environments similar to their own backgrounds. McKoy (2006) reported that pre-service music teachers held ambivalent views about teaching in culturally diverse schools—even though they affirmed the value of multicultural music instruction, recognized race and ethnicity as factors influencing music and learning-style preferences, and claimed to be comfortable teaching in racially and ethnically diverse settings.

A body of literature on teacher education shows that teachers' beliefs, orientations, and commitment profoundly shape what they learn in training programs (Foster, 1995; Feiman-Nemser & Remillard, 1996; Gay & Howard, 2000; Thorson, 2002; Villegas & Lucas, 2002; Kelly, 2003). The more teachers understand about how their own cultural backgrounds and ethnic identities shape their views of other groups, the more open they may become to recognizing that culture and ethnicity are critical to teaching and learning. Research on culturally responsive teaching must therefore investigate teacher attitudes, beliefs, values, and expectations. Howard (1999) observes, "Too often we expect White teachers to be what they have not learned to be, namely, multiculturally competent people" (p. 4). Emmanuel (2003) noted that pre-service teachers who took part in an immersion experience to increase intercultural competence gained a deeper understanding of the word "multicultural." They became more aware of the many forms of diversity and reconceptualized teaching as a two-way transmission between teacher and students.

Gender, too, is a factor shaped by culture—especially in music education. Researchers have examined how cultural stereotypes about gender roles are reinforced (Citron, 1993; Morton, 1996; Green, 1997; Howe, 1998; Gould, 2005). These issues are important to understanding how pre- and in-service music teachers' attitudes about gender affect their own career choices and their expectations for their students.

Student

Students, like teachers, enter the classroom with a wealth of personal experiences. Educators who want to maximize learning must understand how culture shapes students' musical experiences. One major aim of music education is to cultivate an appreciation of many styles and genres. Current investigations have focused on preferences, age, gender, ethnicity, and race (Appleton, 1971; Meadows, 1971; James, 1974; McCrary, 1993; McCrary & Gauthier, 1995). Their results align with LeBlanc's (1987) description of how listener characteristics like gender, ethnic group identity, and age appear in the development of music preference. Yet these variables are not the only factors that affect music learning.

Teachers must go beyond knowing about students' musical backgrounds. They also need to understand how variables such as learning-style preference and racial identity interact with race and culture. Hale (1986, 1994, 2001) investigated the roots, culture, and learning styles of African American children. Her research, though not specific to music, can help music teachers understand the unique needs of African American students. That understanding, in turn, can help educators design experiences that serve all their students better. In Culture, style and the educative process, Shade (1997) examines the cognitive styles of African American, Native American, Hmong, and Mexican American students while developing teaching strategies that respond to cultural learning styles.

Identity development is another important—and complex—factor in education, mediated by racial, social, and cultural background. It is deeply tied to issues of self-esteem and peer-group influence. Tatum (1997) explores the formation of racial identity in her book Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria? To better meet the needs of increasingly diverse student populations, music teachers must understand how race, identity, and self-esteem affect their students, and how these issues influence music teaching and learning.

Content

Curricular decisions center on what gets taught. These choices rest on prior decisions about the goals and objectives of the music program. Because content choices can include or exclude certain groups, they form a vital part of any conceptual model dealing with race, culture, and ethnicity. Choices about repertoire, ensemble types, and related musical activities can act as either barriers or supports for diverse populations. For example, Arabic students whose religious beliefs forbid playing instruments would be at a major disadvantage in a program built around band and orchestra.

In general education, the literature identifies three broad approaches to multicultural education: (1) teaching content about cultural pluralism, (2) teaching culturally different students directly, and (3) using cultural pluralism as a springboard for teaching other academic subjects and intellectual skills (Gay, 1994). The last of these—a content-centered approach—is most popular and appears most often in social studies, language arts, and fine arts. Teachers have access to many resources for incorporating world music into classroom activities, and understanding music from other cultures is one of the National Standards for Music Education (Consortium of National Arts Education Associations, 1994).

Yet studies examining public school multicultural music programs reveal curricula that are often cursory and superficial. Activities are typically linked to world holidays and celebrations, with little consideration for cultural context or musical authenticity. There is often scant attention to the functional context in which the music operates or the unique aesthetic value systems that inform its tradition (Palmer, 1975, 1992; Yudkin, 1990; Robinson, 1996). These findings highlight the need for curricula that (1) treat multiculturalism as a central component rather than an add-on, (2) align with the transmission methods and functional contexts of the cultures being studied, and (3) reflect the aesthetic value systems of those cultures.

In general education, Banks (1994) describes a hierarchical approach to multicultural education that incorporates some of these elements. In this scheme, multicultural content can appear at four levels of increasing complexity: (1) contribution, (2) additive, (3) transformation, and (4) social action. The more complex levels—transformation and social action—are the most inclusive, but they require major curricular restructuring. These levels involve rethinking established ideas about what constitutes meaningful content and designing curricula that extend students' cultural understanding. Students also gain opportunities to "take personal, social, and civic actions related to the concepts, problems, and issues they have studied" (Banks, 1994, p. 27). Similarly, Elliott (1989) presents a typology of music curricula built on six multicultural ideologies originally proposed by Pratte (1979). Elliott advocates "dynamic multiculturalism" as a model that preserves the integrity of a given musical tradition while remaining open to the unfamiliar values, procedures, and behaviors needed to truly understand that tradition.

Instruction

Beyond content, how music instruction is presented matters enormously. The variety of learning activities and the teacher's instructional style can directly affect how students engage with and succeed in the music program. Students from different cultural backgrounds may feel uncomfortable with certain activities or presentation styles. Research that helps us understand how children from diverse backgrounds respond to various musical activities and instructional approaches will enable teachers to develop methods consistent with culturally responsive teaching.

In Learning while Black, Hale (2001) advocates a culturally appropriate pedagogy designed to motivate and empower African American students by structuring learning in ways that support African American learning styles. These strategies include activities that tap oral learning and oral literacy, emphasize the creative arts, and feature a kinesthetic and affective orientation. Because these approaches often overlap with methods used in music classrooms, research investigating their effectiveness in promoting positive music-learning experiences for African American students would be valuable.

Hale also describes how community settings connect to educational opportunities. Many urban students come from communities that value collaboration. Hale argues that the competitive atmosphere prevalent in many classrooms directly contradicts the family and community values of a large number of students. Others who support culturally responsive instruction echo the call for a collaborative classroom environment where students work together, assist each other, and offer support and encouragement (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Foster, 1995; Irvine & Foster, 1996). Research in music education also supports the effectiveness of more collaborative, less competitive approaches (Lind, 1999; Lind & Butler, 2003).

Context

The classroom context remains a pivotal factor in successful learning. Teachers who develop an understanding of their students and design activities that build upon their interests and strengths are far more likely to foster a positive learning atmosphere (Gay, 2000). Cochran-Smith (2004) argues that educators must also be willing to recognize, honor, and build from the cultural and linguistic assets their students bring. On the other hand, when teachers show little concern or interest in their students, alienation frequently results (Arroyo et al., 1999). Clearly, establishing a constructive classroom environment demands that teachers make a genuine effort to know their students and, most crucially, create a setting that communicates a belief in every student's capacity to learn (Baum et al., 1995; McLeod, 1996; Delpit, 2002).

In general education, Byrd et al. (1996) discovered that teachers who were task-oriented and established clear disciplinary goals, while offering students democratic choices, were most effective in connecting with non-Anglo students. In music education, Lind and Butler (2003) identified a connection between African American participation in choral ensembles and classroom atmosphere. Programs that were less rigid, deemphasized rules and order, and avoided internal competition tended to have a greater proportion of African American student involvement. Lind (1999) observed comparable results when exploring the link between classroom environment and Hispanic student enrollment in choirs. Hispanic students were more likely to participate in choral programs they perceived as less competitive, more collaborative, and showing lower levels of teacher control.

Unfortunately, building a supportive classroom environment can become challenging when substantial cultural gaps exist between a student's background and that of the school. Variations in language use and interpersonal communication can lead teachers to misjudge students' abilities, intentions, or aptitudes (Delpit, 1995). Teachers may also establish classroom environments or use instructional styles that conflict with their students' cultural norms. Given that the teaching force continues to be predominantly White, female, and middle-class, while the student population grows increasingly diverse, problems arising from these disparities are likely to persist or even worsen (Ducette et al., 1996).

These gaps are evident in music education as well. Reeder-Lundquist (2002) observes that pre-service music teachers are often expected to succeed in educational environments that differ socially, historically, and aesthetically from the settings they are being prepared for in their training programs. Barry (1996) and Benham (2003) both documented the experiences of student teachers placed in educational settings unlike those of their music teacher preparation courses. Barry noted that pre-service teachers' questionnaire responses showed increased comfort with teaching in multicultural settings after receiving specialized training in multicultural music instruction; however, their field notes and reflections revealed a different reality in a school where most students were African American. The pre-service teachers expressed frustrations primarily connected to cultural differences between themselves and their students. Barry (1996) concluded that the students' difficulty translating their knowledge into culturally responsive practice stemmed in part from the cultural divide between their college classroom environment and that of their practicum school.

Discussing his experience teaching an inner-city elementary strings class, Benham (2003) described how his pupils viewed him as a cultural outsider. Furthermore, he found that teaching strategies and approaches that had succeeded in other instructional contexts proved ineffective with these students. By gradually developing an awareness of the norms, expectations, and values of the school and community where he taught, Benham was able to communicate more effectively with his students.

Clearly, cultural differences—whether between teacher and students, within the student body, or between the school and its community—present unique educational challenges that shape the classroom environment. Given the significance of the context in which learning occurs, and the many ways race, ethnicity, gender, and culture can influence the creation of a successful, supportive, and positive classroom atmosphere, a research agenda that builds on the interplay of these complex variables will help educators become more effective in this area.

Summary

As noted at the outset, one of the most powerful rationales for developing a conceptual model is that it enables us to think through a process, consider alternative ideas, and generate hypotheses within complex systems. As our field continues to develop a research agenda focused on equity, social justice, and music learning, we must find ways to think deeply about how race, ethnicity, gender, and culture might mediate music learning. This conceptual model can serve as a catalyst for collaborative conversations and research agendas.

This research is offered with the understanding that conceptual models are fluid. They must not only inform research but also be informed by it. As we continue working in this area, our understanding of how multiple cultures can serve as mediating factors in music learning will expand. At the same time, the system under study—education—will evolve. The student population and teaching force will grow increasingly diverse, and learning expectations will continue to shift as new policies and procedures are implemented. The conceptual model must reflect both the new knowledge gained through systematic, focused research and the changes in schooling and music learning. We hope this proposed conceptual model will help organize existing research, clarify what we already know, facilitate conversations, and direct our thinking about music education in new ways, moving the research agenda forward as we strive to provide equitable education to an increasingly diverse student population.

Notes on contributors

Abby Butler is Associate Professor of Vocal Music Education at Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan.

Vicki R. Lind is Assistant Professor of Music Education at the University of California at Los Angeles.

Constance L. McKoy is Assistant Professor with the Music Research Institute in the School of Music at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro.

All three authors contributed equally to this work.

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